Computer software




 

Computer software, or just software, is the collection of computer programs and related data that provide the instructions telling a computer what to do. The term was coined to contrast to the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible, meaning it "cannot be touched".1 Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only. Sometimes the term includes data that has not traditionally been associated with computers, such as film, tapes and records.2

Examples of computer software include:

Contents

History

The first theory about software was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem (Decision problem).3 Paul Niquette claims to have coined the term "software" in this sense in 1953,4 and first used in print by John W. Tukey in 1958.5 The academic fields studying software are computer science and software engineering.

The history of computer software is most often traced back to the first software bug in 1946. As more and more programs enter the realm of firmware, and the hardware itself becomes smaller, cheaper and faster due to Moore's law, elements of computing first considered to be software, join the ranks of hardware. Most hardware companies today have more software programmers on the payroll than hardware designers, since software tools have automated many tasks of Printed circuit board engineers. Just like the Auto industry, the Software industry has grown from a few visionaries operating out of their garage with prototypes. Steve Jobs and Bill Gates were the Henry Ford and Louis Chevrolet of their times, who capitalized on ideas already commonly known before they started in the business. In the case of Software development, this moment is generally agreed to be the publication in the 1980s of the specifications for the IBM Personal Computer published by IBM employee Philip Don Estridge. Today his move would be seen as a type of crowd-sourcing.

Until that time, software was bundled with the hardware by Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) such as Data General, Digital Equipment and IBM. When a customer bought a minicomputer, at that time the smallest computer on the market, the computer did not come with Pre-installed software, but needed to be installed by engineers employed by the OEM. Computer hardware companies not only bundled their software, they also placed demands on the location of the hardware in a refrigerated space called a computer room. Most companies had their software on the books for 0 dollars, unable to claim it as an asset (this is similar to financing of popular music in those days). When Data General introduced the Data General Nova, a company called Digidyne wanted to use its RDOS operating system on its own hardware clone. Data General refused to license their software (which was hard to do, since it was on the books as a free asset), and claimed their "bundling rights". The Supreme Court set a precedent called Digidyne v. Data General in 1985. The Supreme Court let a 9th circuit decision stand, and Data General was eventually forced into licensing the Operating System software because it was ruled that restricting the license to only DG hardware was an illegal tying arrangement.6 Soon after, IBM 'published' its DOS source for free, and Microsoft was born. Unable to sustain the loss from lawyer's fees, Data General ended up being taken over by EMC Corporation. The Supreme Court decision made it possible to value software, and also purchase Software patents. The move by IBM was almost a protest at the time. Few in the industry believed that anyone would profit from it other than IBM (through free publicity). Microsoft and Apple were able to thus cash in on 'soft' products. It is hard to imagine today that people once felt that software was worthless without a machine. There are many successful companies today that sell only software products, though there are still many common software licensing problems due to the complexity of designs and poor documentation, leading to patent trolls.

With open software specifications and the possibility of software licensing, new opportunities arose for software tools that then became the de facto standard, such as DOS for operating systems, but also various proprietary word processing and spreadsheet programs. In a similar growth pattern, proprietary development methods became standard Software development methodology.

Overview

A layer structure showing where operating system is located on generally used software systems on desktops

Software includes all the various forms and roles that digitally stored data may have and play in a computer (or similar system), regardless of whether the data is used as code for a CPU, or other interpreter, or whether it represents other kinds of information. Software thus encompasses a wide array of products that may be developed using different techniques such as ordinary programming languages, scripting languages, microcode, or an FPGA configuration.

The types of software include web pages developed in languages and frameworks like HTML, PHP, Perl, JSP, ASP.NET, XML, and desktop applications like OpenOffice.org, Microsoft Word developed in languages like C, C++, Java, C#, or Smalltalk. Application software usually runs on an underlying software operating systems such as Linux or Microsoft Windows. Software (or firmware) is also used in video games and for the configurable parts of the logic systems of automobiles, televisions, and other consumer electronics.

Computer software is so called to distinguish it from computer hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and devices required to store and execute (or run) the software. At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine language instructions specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. Programs are an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer in a particular sequence. It is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code. Software may also be written in an assembly language, essentially, a mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language must be assembled into object code via an assembler.

Types of software

Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classescitation needed: system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred.

System software

System software helps run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes a combination of the following:

The purpose of systems software is to unburden the applications programmer from the often complex details of the particular computer being used, including such accessories as communications devices, printers, device readers, displays and keyboards, and also to partition the computer's resources such as memory and processor time in a safe and stable manner. Examples are - Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X.

Programming software

Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs, and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include:

An Integrated development environment (IDE) is a single application that attempts to manage all these functions.

Application software

Application software allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (not directly computer development related) tasks. Typical applications include:

Application software exists for and has impacted a wide variety of topics.

Software topics

Architecture

Users often see things differently than programmers. People who use modern general purpose computers (as opposed to embedded systems, analog computers and supercomputers) usually see three layers of software performing a variety of tasks: platform, application, and user software.

Documentation

Most software has software documentation so that the end user can understand the program, what it does, and how to use it. Without clear documentation, software can be hard to use—especially if it is very specialized and relatively complex like Photoshop or AutoCAD.

Developer documentation may also exist, either with the code as comments and/or as separate files, detailing how the programs works and can be modified.

Library

An executable is almost always not sufficiently complete for direct execution. Software libraries include collections of functions and functionality that may be embedded in other applications. Operating systems include many standard Software libraries, and applications are often distributed with their own libraries.

Standard

Since software can be designed using many different programming languages and in many different operating systems and operating environments, software standard is needed so that different software can understand and exchange information between each other. For instance, an email sent from a Microsoft Outlook should be readable from Yahoo! Mail and vice versa.

Execution

Computer software has to be "loaded" into the computer's storage (such as the hard drive or memory). Once the software has loaded, the computer is able to execute the software. This involves passing instructions from the application software, through the system software, to the hardware which ultimately receives the instruction as machine code. Each instruction causes the computer to carry out an operation – moving data, carrying out a computation, or altering the control flow of instructions.

Data movement is typically from one place in memory to another. Sometimes it involves moving data between memory and registers which enable high-speed data access in the CPU. Moving data, especially large amounts of it, can be costly. So, this is sometimes avoided by using "pointers" to data instead. Computations include simple operations such as incrementing the value of a variable data element. More complex computations may involve many operations and data elements together.

Quality and reliability

Software quality is very important, especially for commercial and system software like Microsoft Office, Microsoft Windows and Linux. If software is faulty (buggy), it can delete a person's work, crash the computer and do other unexpected things. Faults and errors are called "bugs." Many bugs are discovered and eliminated (debugged) through software testing. However, software testing rarely – if ever – eliminates every bug; some programmers say that "every program has at least one more bug" (Lubarsky's Law). All major software companies, such as Microsoft, Novell and Sun Microsystems, have their own software testing departments with the specific goal of just testing. Software can be tested through unit testing, regression testing and other methods, which are done manually, or most commonly, automatically, since the amount of code to be tested can be quite large. For instance, NASA has extremely rigorous software testing procedures for many operating systems and communication functions. Many NASA based operations interact and identify each other through command programs called software. This enables many people who work at NASA to check and evaluate functional systems overall. Programs containing command software enable hardware engineering and system operations to function much easier together.

License

The software's license gives the user the right to use the software in the licensed environment. Some software comes with the license when purchased off the shelf, or an OEM license when bundled with hardware. Other software comes with a free software license, granting the recipient the rights to modify and redistribute the software. Software can also be in the form of freeware or shareware.

Patents

Software can be patented; however, software patents can be controversial in the software industry with many people holding different views about it. The controversy over software patents is that a specific algorithm or technique that the software has may not be duplicated by others and is considered an intellectual property and copyright infringement depending on the severity.

Design and implementation

Design and implementation of software varies depending on the complexity of the software. For instance, design and creation of Microsoft Word software will take much more time than designing and developing Microsoft Notepad because of the difference in functionalities in each one.

Software is usually designed and created (coded/written/programmed) in integrated development environments (IDE) like Eclipse, Emacs and Microsoft Visual Studio that can simplify the process and compile the program. As noted in different section, software is usually created on top of existing software and the application programming interface (API) that the underlying software provides like GTK+, JavaBeans or Swing. Libraries (APIs) are categorized for different purposes. For instance, JavaBeans library is used for designing enterprise applications, Windows Forms library is used for designing graphical user interface (GUI) applications like Microsoft Word, and Windows Communication Foundation is used for designing web services. Underlying computer programming concepts like quicksort, hashtable, array, and binary tree can be useful to creating software. When a program is designed, it relies on the API. For instance, if a user is designing a Microsoft Windows desktop application, he/she might use the .NET Windows Forms library to design the desktop application and call its APIs like Form1.Close() and Form1.Show()7 to close or open the application and write the additional operations him/herself that it need to have. Without these APIs, the programmer needs to write these APIs him/herself. Companies like Sun Microsystems, Novell, and Microsoft provide their own APIs so that many applications are written using their software libraries that usually have numerous APIs in them.

Software has special economic characteristics that make its design, creation, and distribution different from most other economic goods.89 A person who creates software is called a programmer, software engineer, software developer, or code monkey, terms that all have a similar meaning.

Industry and organizations

A great variety of software companies and programmers in the world comprise the software industry . Software can be quite a profitable industry: Bill Gates, the founder of Microsoft was the richest person in the world in 2009 largely by selling the Microsoft Windows and Microsoft Office software products. The same goes for Larry Ellison, largely through his Oracle database software. Through time the software industry has become increasingly specialized.

Non-profit software organizations include the Free Software Foundation, GNU Project and Mozilla Foundation. Software standard organizations like the W3C, IETF develop software standards so that most software can interoperate through standards such as XML, HTML, HTTP or FTP.

Other well-known large software companies include Novell, SAP, Symantec, Adobe Systems, and Corel, while small companies often provide innovation.

References

  1. ^ "Wordreference.com: WordNet 2.0". Princeton University, Princeton, NJ. http://www.wordreference.com/definition/software. Retrieved 2007-08-19. 
  2. ^ software..(n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved 2007-04-13, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/software
  3. ^ Hally, Mike (2005:79). Electronic brains/Stories from the dawn of the computer age. British Broadcasting Corporation and Granta Books, London. ISBN 1-86207-663-4.
  4. ^ Paul Niquette (1995). "Softword: Provenance for the Word 'Software'". http://www.niquette.com/books/softword/tocsoft.html.  adapted from Sophisticated: The Magazine ISBN 1-58922-233-4
  5. ^ "John Tukey, 85, Statistician; Coined the Word 'Software'". New York Times. July 28, 2000. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9500E4DA173DF93BA15754C0A9669C8B63. 
  6. ^ Tying Arrangements and the Computer Industry: Digidyne Corp. vs. Data General
  7. ^ "MSDN Library". http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/default.aspx. Retrieved 2010-06-14. 
  8. ^ v. Engelhardt, Sebastian (2008): "The Economic Properties of Software", Jena Economic Research Papers, Volume 2 (2008), Number 2008-045. (in Adobe pdf format)
  9. ^ "Why Open Source Is The Optimum Economic Paradigm for Software" by Dan Kaminsky 1999

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Not only will they be able to help you with Spyware removal but they will be able to recommend anti-virus and anti-spyware software for your future computer protection needs. Hiral Vyas is an SEO Specialist for Geeks-In-Route who ...
admin
Computer Software and Hardware » » My children loved the Southpark ...
Computer Software and Hardware · Home · ABOUT. 07. Sep. MY CHILDREN LOVED THE SOUTHPARK TOWELIE BEACH TOWEL I GOT FOR THEM. Written by admin at 8:46 am. My kids adore a cartoons Southpark as well as everytime we have been out selling or ...
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Choosing the Right Survey Software | Internet And Computer Security
Survey software are being increasingly used by business houses these days. The author provides a clear guideline with essential tips on how to buy Survey Software.
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Recover Everything on Linux Using Linux Data Recovery Software ...
Linux Data Recovery Software is software that recovers almost all kind of files and folders which were previously present on your Linux Machine. It is compatible with all the Linux Versions and can solve your problems in minutes.
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Yahoo Outlook 2010 – What People Do Wrong When They Try to ...
I can tell that Outlook 2010 is starting to gain traction. Why? Because I'm getting ever more questions about how to make it work with various email services. The majority of those questions ask how to make a Yahoo Outlook 2010 ...
Gene Quinn
Computer Software is Not Math | IPWatchdog.com | Patents & Patent Law
It is impossible to argue that software code does not employ mathematical influences, but that does not mean that software is math and cannot be patented in the US.
admin
Mobile Bulletin – 1405GMT – 10 May 09 | 711ME IT,Hardware,Software ...
711ME IT,Hardware,Software,Computer,Phone. All About This Here of IT World | IT,Hardware,Software,Computer,Phone,Technology. ad3. Home · About. 8 Sep by admin in Apple.com. Mobile Bulletin – 1405GMT – 10 May 09 ...
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Spyware Cleaner Is A Doctor To Computer Lovers - codywire's blog
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admin
Easy Fittness Beside a Computer
Computer Forensics Training – Forensics Software And Tools. A guide to computer forensics training to make you easy learn computer forensics software, use computer forensic tools and improve computer forensics jobs. ...
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Double My Speed.com Software, Is Computer Repair Software a Scam?
Seen almost everywhere, many websites offer software claiming to 'double my speed' and 'speed up your PC'. Are they a scam? Computer repair software review.
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Computer Science Careers Outlook and Prospect « My Blog
Computer science careers are outstanding career options for those who excel in physics and measurements. If you may have passions and interest in operating with laptop or computer such as software and hardware applications debugging, ...
admin
$700000 in stimulus money given to Northwestern University to ...
Just think! The Obama regime is reportedly considered another stimulus package to try and save the Democrat's bacon and create jobs before the November.
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How to Fully Uninstall Software: Removing a Program from the ...
How to Fully Uninstall Software. Removing a Program from the Computer Is Not as Easy as It Seems. Aug 22, 2007 Charles Anderson. Microsoft Windows (XP) "Add/Remove" or "Uninstall a Program" (Vista) often does not remove all traces of a ...
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SpyBoss KeyLogger Pro 4.6.0.142 - Computer Keylogger Spy ...
Computer Keylogger Spy & Internet Monitoring Software Program. Secretly Monitor & Record: Keystrokes, Screenshots, Email, Instant Messenging, Chatting, Websites Visited, Passwords & Usernames, Programs Run and much much more .
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Using Offsite Data Backup Software - Nike Hyperize Sale
By using offsite data backup software, any computer user can link nike air force 1 to a remote data storage company and make automatic copies of selected files. This can be absolutely essential for rebuilding a hard drive in case of ...
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Protect your Computer with Anti-Virus Software
As more and more personal data is stored on computers and shared networks, the importance of protecting that data with anti-virus software grows.
sanjayseoexpert
Some Of the Career Alternatives in the Arena of MBA, IT and ...
... Computer Engineer, Computer Forensics, Video Game Designer, Computer Graphic Specialists, Computer Hardware Engineer, Computer Programmer, Computer Security Professional, Computer Software Engineer, Computer Systems Manager, ...
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Dental Office Practice Management Software: Dentist Computer ...
Dentistry software can help dental labs improve the performance of dental implants and management. Free dental software provides dental planning and billing functions.
admin
Playing Backup Games on Ps2
Due to the rapid increase of gamers playing PS2 games, gamers have now found the need to backup there games. These console games over time becomes scratched and are expensive to replace.
admin
IT, Hi-Tech, Science, Medicine and Architecture News » Would You ...
Both of these PC TV types often come with its proprietary PC TV tuner software. The moment you attach them to your personal computer, the software will prompt you for an installation. Just follow the breadcrumb trail and you will be ...
Karen Simpson
Computer Software Basics
The computer software that you have purchased was worked on for months if not years, just so they could encode all the pre-made videos and tools. Operating systems are the key when it comes to getting computer software to work as it ...
admin
Keylogger viruses and Adware Removal Software Review – Computer ...
Due to the ever-booming Internet industry and the access of millions of users from around the world on at? Were like basis, it is important that the necessary.
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Adobe Photoshop CS2 and Photoshop CS3 Upgrade Tutorial Training on ...
Over 40 hours of Video Based Training on 4 DVD-ROMs 206 individual video lessons, with all working files For Windows 98, ME, 2000, XP and XP Pro,
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Weasel Zippers » Blog Archive » Today's EPIC Waste of Taxpayer ...
September 2, 2010 (EVANSTON, Ill.) — A research professor at Northwestern University is defending a more than $700000 stimulus grant he has received to create computer software that tells jokes. Professor Kristian Hammond says it's ...
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My Computer Keeps Restarting-Troubleshooting Windows Restarts
One of the most common problems is the software problem. In order to boot your computer in Safe Mode, repeatedly press F8 while your computer is starting. A menu will appear. Choose Safe Mode with the arrow keys and press Enter. ...
admin
Computer Parts Accessories, Software offers audio/video ...
Computer Parts Accessories, Software offers audio/video electronics for the Car and Home. electronics-focus. About · Home · About. You are here : Home » LX Innovations nominated in Electronics News Awards 2010 ...
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Slow Computer Solutions, No Magic Needed to Fix a Slow PC
Malware and Adware too can do the same; opening unneeded (and unwanted) applications and processes, all which will contribute to a slower computer. Prevent these issues by maintaining up-to-date guardian software which includes reliable ...
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How to Install Skype on Ubuntu Linux
This is great blog which we can learn the latest computer software to be install correctly especially Skype. Thanks for useful post which i can learn and use in my Computer ...
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