Programming language

A programming language is an artificial language designed to express computations that can be performed by a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that control the behavior of a machine, to express algorithms precisely, or as a mode of human communication.

Many programming languages have some form of written specification of their syntax (form) and semantics (meaning). Some languages are defined by a specification document. For example, the C programming language is specified by an ISO Standard. Other languages, such as Perl, have a dominant implementation that is used as a reference.

The earliest programming languages predate the invention of the computer, and were used to direct the behavior of machines such as Jacquard looms and player pianos. Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computer field, with many more being created every year. Most programming languages describe computation in an imperative style, i.e., as a sequence of commands, although some languages, such as those that support functional programming or logic programming, use alternative forms of description.

Definitions

A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a computation or algorithm.¹ Some, but not all, authors restrict the term "programming language" to those languages that can express all possible algorithms.¹² Traits often considered important for what constitutes a programming language include:

• Function and target: A computer programming language is a language³ used to write computer programs, which involve a computer performing some kind of computation⁴ or algorithm and possibly control external devices such as printers, disk drives, robots,⁵ and so on. For example PostScript programs are frequently created by another program to control a computer printer or display. More generally, a programming language may describe computation on some, possibly abstract, machine. It is generally accepted that a complete specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly idealized, of a machine or processor for that language.⁶ In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer; consequently programming languages are usually defined and studied this way.⁷ Programming languages differ from natural languages in that natural languages are only used for interaction between people, while programming languages also allow humans to communicate instructions to machines.

• Abstractions: Programming languages usually contain abstractions for defining and manipulating data structures or controlling the flow of execution. The practical necessity that a programming language support adequate abstractions is expressed by the abstraction principle;⁸ this principle is sometimes formulated as recommendation to the programmer to make proper use of such abstractions.⁹

• Expressive power: The theory of computation classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing. All Turing complete languages can implement the same set of algorithms. ANSI/ISO SQL and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, yet often called programming languages.¹⁰¹¹

Markup languages like XML, HTML or troff, which define structured data, are not generally considered programming languages.¹²¹³¹⁴ Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined. XSLT, for example, is a Turing complete XML dialect.¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷ Moreover, LaTeX, which is mostly used for structuring documents, also contains a Turing complete subset.¹⁸¹⁹

The term computer language is sometimes used interchangeably with programming language.²⁰ However, the usage of both terms varies among authors, including the exact scope of each. One usage describes programming languages as a subset of computer languages.²¹ In this vein, languages used in computing that have a different goal than expressing computer programs are generically designated computer languages. For instance, markup languages are sometimes referred to as computer languages to emphasize that they are not meant to be used for programming.²² Another usage regards programming languages as theoretical constructs for programming abstract machines, and computer languages as the subset thereof that runs on physical computers, which have finite hardware resources.²³ John C. Reynolds emphasizes that formal specification languages are just as much programming languages as are the languages intended for execution. He also argues that textual and even graphical input formats that affect the behavior of a computer are programming languages, despite the fact they are commonly not Turing-complete, and remarks that ignorance of programming language concepts is the reason for many flaws in input formats.²⁴

Elements

All programming languages have some primitive building blocks for the description of data and the processes or transformations applied to them (like the addition of two numbers or the selection of an item from a collection). These primitives are defined by syntactic and semantic rules which describe their structure and meaning respectively.

Syntax

Parse tree of Python code with inset tokenization

Syntax highlighting is often used to aid programmers in recognizing elements of source code. The language above is Python.

A programming language's surface form is known as its syntax. Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On the other hand, there are some programming languages which are more graphical in nature, using visual relationships between symbols to specify a program.

The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either formal or hard-coded in a reference implementation). Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax.

Programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of regular expressions (for lexical structure) and Backus–Naur Form (for grammatical structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on Lisp:

expression ::= atom   | list
atom       ::= number | symbol
number     ::= [+-]?['0'-'9']+
symbol     ::= ['A'-'Z''a'-'z'].*
list       ::= '(' expression* ')'

This grammar specifies the following:

• an expression is either an atom or a list;
• an atom is either a number or a symbol;
• a number is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign;
• a symbol is a letter followed by zero or more of any characters (excluding whitespace); and
• a list is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more expressions inside it.

The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: '12345', '()', '(a b c232 (1))'

Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such programs may exhibit undefined behavior. Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it.

Using natural language as an example, it may not be possible to assign a meaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false:

• "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously." is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted meaning.
• "John is a married bachelor." is grammatically well-formed but expresses a meaning that cannot be true.

The following C language fragment is syntactically correct, but performs an operation that is not semantically defined (because p is a null pointer, the operations p->real and p->im have no meaning):

complex *p = NULL;
complex abs_p = sqrt (p->real * p->real + p->im * p->im);

If the type declaration on the first line were omitted, the program would trigger an error on compilation, as the variable "p" would not be defined. But the program would still be syntactically correct, since type declarations provide only semantic information.

The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the Chomsky hierarchy. The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are context-free grammars.²⁵ Some languages, including Perl and Lisp, contain constructs that allow execution during the parsing phase. Languages that have constructs that allow the programmer to alter the behavior of the parser make syntax analysis an undecidable problem, and generally blur the distinction between parsing and execution.²⁶ In contrast to Lisp's macro system and Perl's BEGIN blocks, which may contain general computations, C macros are merely string replacements, and do not require code execution.²⁷

Static semantics

The static semantics defines restrictions on the structure of valid texts that are hard or impossible to express in standard syntactic formalisms.¹ For compiled languages, static semantics essentially include those semantic rules that can be checked at compile time. Examples include checking that every identifier is declared before it is used (in languages that require such declarations) or that the labels on the arms of a case statement are distinct.²⁸ Many important restrictions of this type, like checking that identifiers are used in the appropriate context (e.g. not adding a integer to a function name), or that subroutine calls have the appropriate number and type of arguments can be enforced by defining them as rules in a logic called a type system. Other forms of static analyses like data flow analysis may also be part of static semantics. Newer programming languages like Java and C# have definite assignment analysis, a form of data flow analysis, as part of their static semantics.

Type system

A type system defines how a programming language classifies values and expressions into types, how it can manipulate those types and how they interact. The goal of a type system is to verify and usually enforce a certain level of correctness in programs written in that language by detecting certain incorrect operations. Any decidable type system involves a trade-off: while it rejects many incorrect programs, it can also prohibit some correct, albeit unusual programs. In order to bypass this downside, a number of languages have type loopholes, usually unchecked casts that may be used by the programmer to explicitly allow a normally disallowed operation between different types. In most typed languages, the type system is used only to type check programs, but a number of languages, usually functional ones, perform type inference, which relieves the programmer from writing type annotations. The formal design and study of type systems is known as type theory.

Typed versus untyped languages

A language is typed if the specification of every operation defines types of data to which the operation is applicable, with the implication that it is not applicable to other types.²⁹ For example, "this text between the quotes" is a string. In most programming languages, dividing a number by a string has no meaning. Most modern programming languages will therefore reject any program attempting to perform such an operation. In some languages, the meaningless operation will be detected when the program is compiled ("static" type checking), and rejected by the compiler, while in others, it will be detected when the program is run ("dynamic" type checking), resulting in a runtime exception.

A special case of typed languages are the single-type languages. These are often scripting or markup languages, such as REXX or SGML, and have only one data type—most commonly character strings which are used for both symbolic and numeric data.

In contrast, an untyped language, such as most assembly languages, allows any operation to be performed on any data, which are generally considered to be sequences of bits of various lengths.²⁹ High-level languages which are untyped include BCPL and some varieties of Forth.

In practice, while few languages are considered typed from the point of view of type theory (verifying or rejecting all operations), most modern languages offer a degree of typing.²⁹ Many production languages provide means to bypass or subvert the type system.

Static versus dynamic typing

In static typing all expressions have their types determined prior to the program being run (typically at compile-time). For example, 1 and (2+2) are integer expressions; they cannot be passed to a function that expects a string, or stored in a variable that is defined to hold dates.²⁹

Statically typed languages can be either manifestly typed or type-inferred. In the first case, the programmer must explicitly write types at certain textual positions (for example, at variable declarations). In the second case, the compiler infers the types of expressions and declarations based on context. Most mainstream statically typed languages, such as C++, C# and Java, are manifestly typed. Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with less mainstream languages, such as Haskell and ML. However, many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference; for example, Java and C# both infer types in certain limited cases.³⁰

Dynamic typing, also called latent typing, determines the type-safety of operations at runtime; in other words, types are associated with runtime values rather than textual expressions.²⁹ As with type-inferred languages, dynamically typed languages do not require the programmer to write explicit type annotations on expressions. Among other things, this may permit a single variable to refer to values of different types at different points in the program execution. However, type errors cannot be automatically detected until a piece of code is actually executed, making debugging more difficult. Ruby, Lisp, JavaScript, and Python are dynamically typed.

Weak and strong typing

Weak typing allows a value of one type to be treated as another, for example treating a string as a number.²⁹ This can occasionally be useful, but it can also allow some kinds of program faults to go undetected at compile time and even at runtime.

Strong typing prevents the above. An attempt to perform an operation on the wrong type of value raises an error.²⁹ Strongly typed languages are often termed type-safe or safe.

An alternative definition for "weakly typed" refers to languages, such as Perl and JavaScript, which permit a large number of implicit type conversions. In JavaScript, for example, the expression 2 * x implicitly converts x to a number, and this conversion succeeds even if x is null, undefined, an Array, or a string of letters. Such implicit conversions are often useful, but they can mask programming errors.

Strong and static are now generally considered orthogonal concepts, but usage in the literature differs. Some use the term strongly typed to mean strongly, statically typed, or, even more confusingly, to mean simply statically typed. Thus C has been called both strongly typed and weakly, statically typed.³¹³²

Execution semantics

Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data. For example, the semantics may define the strategy by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which control structures conditionally execute statements. The execution semantics (also known as dynamic semantics) of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior. There are many ways of defining execution semantics. Natural language is often used to specify the execution semantics of languages commonly used in practice. A significant amount of academic research went into formal semantics of programming languages, which allow execution semantics to be specified in a formal manner. Results from this field of research have seen limited application to programming language design and implementation outside academia.

Core library

Most programming languages have an associated core library (sometimes known as the 'standard library', especially if it is included as part of the published language standard), which is conventionally made available by all implementations of the language. Core libraries typically include definitions for commonly used algorithms, data structures, and mechanisms for input and output.

A language's core library is often treated as part of the language by its users, although the designers may have treated it as a separate entity. Many language specifications define a core that must be made available in all implementations, and in the case of standardized languages this core library may be required. The line between a language and its core library therefore differs from language to language. Indeed, some languages are designed so that the meanings of certain syntactic constructs cannot even be described without referring to the core library. For example, in Java, a string literal is defined as an instance of the java.lang.String class; similarly, in Smalltalk, an anonymous function expression (a "block") constructs an instance of the library's BlockContext class. Conversely, Scheme contains multiple coherent subsets that suffice to construct the rest of the language as library macros, and so the language designers do not even bother to say which portions of the language must be implemented as language constructs, and which must be implemented as parts of a library.

Design and implementation

Programming languages share properties with natural languages related to their purpose as vehicles for communication, having a syntactic form separate from its semantics, and showing language families of related languages branching one from another.³ But as artificial constructs, they also differ in fundamental ways from languages that have evolved through usage. A significant difference is that a programming language can be fully described and studied in its entirety, since it has a precise and finite definition.³³ By contrast, natural languages have changing meanings given by their users in different communities. While constructed languages are also artificial languages designed from the ground up with a specific purpose, they lack the precise and complete semantic definition that a programming language has.

Many languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, combined with other languages, and eventually fallen into disuse. Although there have been attempts to design one "universal" programming language that serves all purposes, all of them have failed to be generally accepted as filling this role.³⁴ The need for diverse programming languages arises from the diversity of contexts in which languages are used:

• Programs range from tiny scripts written by individual hobbyists to huge systems written by hundreds of programmers.
• Programmers range in expertise from novices who need simplicity above all else, to experts who may be comfortable with considerable complexity.
• Programs must balance speed, size, and simplicity on systems ranging from microcontrollers to supercomputers.
• Programs may be written once and not change for generations, or they may undergo continual modification.
• Finally, programmers may simply differ in their tastes: they may be accustomed to discussing problems and expressing them in a particular language.

One common trend in the development of programming languages has been to add more ability to solve problems using a higher level of abstraction. The earliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer. As new programming languages have developed, features have been added that let programmers express ideas that are more remote from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the complexity of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer. This lets them write more functionality per time unit.³⁵

Natural language processors have been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. Edsger W. Dijkstra took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of meaningless constructs, and dismissed natural language programming as "foolish".³⁶ Alan Perlis was similarly dismissive of the idea.³⁷ Hybrid approaches have been taken in Structured English and SQL.

A language's designers and users must construct a number of artifacts that govern and enable the practice of programming. The most important of these artifacts are the language specification and implementation.

Specification

The specification of a programming language is intended to provide a definition that the language users and the implementors can use to determine whether the behavior of a program is correct, given its source code.

A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following:

• An explicit definition of the syntax, static semantics, and execution semantics of the language. While syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in natural language (e.g., as in the C language), or a formal semantics (e.g., as in Standard ML³⁸ and Scheme³⁹ specifications).
• A description of the behavior of a translator for the language (e.g., the C++ and Fortran specifications). The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or a formal language.
• A reference or model implementation, sometimes written in the language being specified (e.g., Prolog or ANSI REXX⁴⁰). The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation.

Implementation

An implementation of a programming language provides a way to execute that program on one or more configurations of hardware and software. There are, broadly, two approaches to programming language implementation: compilation and interpretation. It is generally possible to implement a language using either technique.

The output of a compiler may be executed by hardware or a program called an interpreter. In some implementations that make use of the interpreter approach there is no distinct boundary between compiling and interpreting. For instance, some implementations of BASIC compile and then execute the source a line at a time.

Programs that are executed directly on the hardware usually run several orders of magnitude faster than those that are interpreted in software.^{citation needed}

One technique for improving the performance of interpreted programs is just-in-time compilation. Here the virtual machine, just before execution, translates the blocks of bytecode which are going to be used to machine code, for direct execution on the hardware.

Usage

Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computing field.⁴¹ Programming languages differ from most other forms of human expression in that they require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make small errors, and still expect their intent to be understood. However, figuratively speaking, computers "do exactly what they are told to do", and cannot "understand" what code the programmer intended to write. The combination of the language definition, a program, and the program's inputs must fully specify the external behavior that occurs when the program is executed, within the domain of control of that program.

A programming language provides a structured mechanism for defining pieces of data, and the operations or transformations that may be carried out automatically on that data. A programmer uses the abstractions present in the language to represent the concepts involved in a computation. These concepts are represented as a collection of the simplest elements available (called primitives).⁴² Programming is the process by which programmers combine these primitives to compose new programs, or adapt existing ones to new uses or a changing environment.

Programs for a computer might be executed in a batch process without human interaction, or a user might type commands in an interactive session of an interpreter. In this case the "commands" are simply programs, whose execution is chained together. When a language is used to give commands to a software application (such as a shell) it is called a scripting language.^{citation needed}

Measuring language usage

It is difficult to determine which programming languages are most widely used, and what usage means varies by context. One language may occupy the greater number of programmer hours, a different one have more lines of code, and a third utilize the most CPU time. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications. For example, COBOL is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large mainframes; FORTRAN in engineering applications; C in embedded applications and operating systems; and other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications.

Various methods of measuring language popularity, each subject to a different bias over what is measured, have been proposed:

• counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language⁴³
• the number of books sold that teach or describe the language⁴⁴
• estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language—which may underestimate languages not often found in public searches⁴⁵
• counts of language references (i.e., to the name of the language) found using a web search engine.

Combining and averaging information from various internet sites, langpop.com claims that ⁴⁶ in 2008 the 10 most cited programming languages are (in alphabetical order): C, C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, and SQL.

Taxonomies

There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages. A given programming language does not usually have a single ancestor language. Languages commonly arise by combining the elements of several predecessor languages with new ideas in circulation at the time. Ideas that originate in one language will diffuse throughout a family of related languages, and then leap suddenly across familial gaps to appear in an entirely different family.

The task is further complicated by the fact that languages can be classified along multiple axes. For example, Java is both an object-oriented language (because it encourages object-oriented organization) and a concurrent language (because it contains built-in constructs for running multiple threads in parallel). Python is an object-oriented scripting language.

In broad strokes, programming languages divide into programming paradigms and a classification by intended domain of use. Traditionally, programming languages have been regarded as describing computation in terms of imperative sentences, i.e. issuing commands. These are generally called imperative programming languages. A great deal of research in programming languages has been aimed at blurring the distinction between a program as a set of instructions and a program as an assertion about the desired answer, which is the main feature of declarative programming.⁴⁷ More refined paradigms include procedural programming, object-oriented programming, functional programming, and logic programming; some languages are hybrids of paradigms or multi-paradigmatic. An assembly language is not so much a paradigm as a direct model of an underlying machine architecture. By purpose, programming languages might be considered general purpose, system programming languages, scripting languages, domain-specific languages, or concurrent/distributed languages (or a combination of these).⁴⁸ Some general purpose languages were designed largely with educational goals.⁴⁹

A programming language may also be classified by factors unrelated to programming paradigm. For instance, most programming languages use English language keywords, while a minority do not. Other languages may be classified as being esoteric or not.

History

A selection of textbooks that teach programming, in languages both popular and obscure. These are only a few of the thousands of programming languages and dialects that have been designed in history.

Early developments

The first programming languages predate the modern computer. The 19th century had "programmable" looms and player piano scrolls which implemented what are today recognized as examples of domain-specific languages. By the beginning of the twentieth century, punch cards encoded data and directed mechanical processing. In the 1930s and 1940s, the formalisms of Alonzo Church's lambda calculus and Alan Turing's Turing machines provided mathematical abstractions for expressing algorithms; the lambda calculus remains influential in language design.⁵⁰

In the 1940s, the first electrically powered digital computers were created. The first high-level programming language to be designed for a computer was Plankalkül, developed for the German Z3 by Konrad Zuse between 1943 and 1945. However, it was not implemented until 1998 and 2000.⁵¹

Programmers of early 1950s computers, notably UNIVAC I and IBM 701, used machine language programs, that is, the first generation language (1GL). 1GL programming was quickly superseded by similarly machine-specific, but mnemonic, second generation languages (2GL) known as assembly languages or "assembler". Later in the 1950s, assembly language programming, which had evolved to include the use of macro instructions, was followed by the development of "third generation" programming languages (3GL), such as FORTRAN, LISP, and COBOL.⁵² 3GLs are more abstract and are "portable", or at least implemented similarly on computers that do not support the same native machine code. Updated versions of all of these 3GLs are still in general use, and each has strongly influenced the development of later languages.⁵³ At the end of the 1950s, the language formalized as ALGOL 60 was introduced, and most later programming languages are, in many respects, descendants of Algol.⁵³ The format and use of the early programming languages was heavily influenced by the constraints of the interface.⁵⁴

Refinement

The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use, though many aspects were refinements of ideas in the very first Third-generation programming languages:

• APL introduced array programming and influenced functional programming.⁵⁵
• PL/I (NPL) was designed in the early 1960s to incorporate the best ideas from FORTRAN and COBOL.
• In the 1960s, Simula was the first language designed to support object-oriented programming; in the mid-1970s, Smalltalk followed with the first "purely" object-oriented language.
• C was developed between 1969 and 1973 as a system programming language, and remains popular.⁵⁶
• Prolog, designed in 1972, was the first logic programming language.
• In 1978, ML built a polymorphic type system on top of Lisp, pioneering statically typed functional programming languages.

Each of these languages spawned an entire family of descendants, and most modern languages count at least one of them in their ancestry.

The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of structured programming, and whether programming languages should be designed to support it.⁵⁷ Edsger Dijkstra, in a famous 1968 letter published in the Communications of the ACM, argued that GOTO statements should be eliminated from all "higher level" programming languages.⁵⁸

The 1960s and 1970s also saw expansion of techniques that reduced the footprint of a program as well as improved productivity of the programmer and user. The card deck for an early 4GL was a lot smaller for the same functionality expressed in a 3GL deck.

Consolidation and growth

The 1980s were years of relative consolidation. C++ combined object-oriented and systems programming. The United States government standardized Ada, a systems programming language derived from Pascal and intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating so-called "fifth generation" languages that incorporated logic programming constructs.⁵⁹ The functional languages community moved to standardize ML and Lisp. Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the ideas invented in the previous decade.

One important trend in language design for programming large-scale systems during the 1980s was an increased focus on the use of modules, or large-scale organizational units of code. Modula-2, Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, although other languages, such as PL/I, already had extensive support for modular programming. Module systems were often wedded to generic programming constructs.⁶⁰

The rapid growth of the Internet in the mid-1990s created opportunities for new languages. Perl, originally a Unix scripting tool first released in 1987, became common in dynamic websites. Java came to be used for server-side programming, and bytecode virtual machines became popular again in commercial settings with their promise of "Write once, run anywhere" (UCSD Pascal had been popular for a time in the early 1980s). These developments were not fundamentally novel, rather they were refinements to existing languages and paradigms, and largely based on the C family of programming languages.

Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and research. Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity (mixins, delegates, aspects), and database integration such as Microsoft's LINQ.

The 4GLs are examples of languages which are domain-specific, such as SQL, which manipulates and returns sets of data rather than the scalar values which are canonical to most programming languages. Perl, for example, with its 'here document' can hold multiple 4GL programs, as well as multiple JavaScript programs, in part of its own perl code and use variable interpolation in the 'here document' to support multi-language programming.⁶¹

See also

Computer science portal

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Computer programming

Look up programming language in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Programming languages

• Comparison of programming languages (basic instructions)
• Comparison of programming languages
• Computer programming
• Computer science and Outline of computer science
• Educational programming language
• Invariant based programming
• Lists of programming languages
• List of programming language researchers
• Literate programming
• Dialect (computing)
• Programming language theory
• Pseudocode
• Scientific language
• Software engineering and List of software engineering topics

References

Further reading

• Daniel P. Friedman, Mitchell Wand, Christopher Thomas Haynes: Essentials of Programming Languages, The MIT Press 2001.
• David Gelernter, Suresh Jagannathan: Programming Linguistics, The MIT Press 1990.
• Shriram Krishnamurthi: Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation, online publication.
• Bruce J. MacLennan: Principles of Programming Languages: Design, Evaluation, and Implementation, Oxford University Press 1999.
• John C. Mitchell: Concepts in Programming Languages, Cambridge University Press 2002.
• Benjamin C. Pierce: Types and Programming Languages, The MIT Press 2002.
• Ravi Sethi: Programming Languages: Concepts and Constructs, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley 1996.
• Michael L. Scott: Programming Language Pragmatics, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers 2005.
• Richard L. Wexelblat (ed.): History of Programming Languages, Academic Press 1981.

External links

• 99 Bottles of Beer A collection of implementations in many languages.
• Computer Programming Languages at the Open Directory Project
• Syntax Patterns for Various Languages

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Ruby Programming Language... (AjaxBlog) » TechNews.AM

When I surf the Internet, I found about Ruby Programming Language.. I'm...

2010-09-08T16:12:41Z

Steve

Musical notation and programming languages | Global Constant

This is a bit of a rough comparison, however, as programming languages are entirely devoid of human interpretation or variation. Any given piece of code written in a particular language produces the same behavior when properly compiled, ...

2010-09-05T15:58:10Z

admin

How do you guys master PHP Programming Language?

2 Responses to “How do you guys master PHP Programming Language?” Ken H says: September 5, 2010 at 4:43 pm. Well, books, ebooks, and classes are about all your choices. There is a tutorial on the php website you could start with. ...

2010-09-09T01:33:20Z

unknown

CUDA Example Introduction GeneralPurpose GPU Programming ...

Better still, by the time you finish this book you will be able to apply the basic principles you've learned to the next programming language you tackle. Create simple, fun games while you learn to program with Python ...

2010-09-06T15:55:20Z

Admin

Web Programming Language-What Is It? (Part I) | Dedicated Server ...

So, the web programming languages are languages that are commonly used for developing various Internet technologies to make them work. Some web programming languages are created specifically to work with particular internet resource. ...

2010-09-08T21:49:41Z

admin

Ruby Regexp Resource

The Ruby programming language had been developed on February 2003 by Yukihiro Matsumoto who thought to make a new language which balanced functional programming together with imperative programming. Matsumoto has stated he needed a new ...

2010-09-09T04:55:29Z

unknown

Excel Programming Ebook Rapidshare Free Full Downloads with ...

This course introduces the Visual Basic for Applications programming language, covers creating subroutines and functions to hold code, and provides a solid grounding in the Excel 2007 object model. Programming techniques are ...

2010-07-13T19:40:37Z

unknown

Using Libraries with the Processing Programming Language

A simple tutorial showing how to include libraries in a Processing application and how to create functioning buttons that the users can press.

2010-07-13T11:56:14Z

unknown

How to Start Making Processing Programming Language Applications

This tutorial shows that Processing is a wonderful programming language for creating visual applications. It's free, open source and easy to use.

2010-09-04T16:06:08Z

Steven Oliver

Falcon Programming Language Mirror on GitHub « Living With Penguins

Falcon Programming Language Mirror on GitHub. 4 September 2010 Steven Oliver Leave a comment Go to comments. I have decided that to mirror the official Falcon PL git repository on GitHub. This should make it easier for everyone to watch ...

2010-08-26T17:32:00Z

Philip Wadler

Wadler's Blog: Programming Language Popularity

A site that tracks popularity of Programming Languages. Many of my favorite languages appear on the list. Interesting to see that (for this week at least) the order is Scheme, Haskell, Smalltalk, Erlang, Scala, O'Caml. ...

2010-09-06T23:23:00Z

antoq

Python 3.2 Alpha 2 for Linux: Powerful programming language | All ...

Python 3.2 Alpha 2 for Linux: Powerful programming language | All about linux @ Linuxinet.Com, the most comprehensive source for Linux Update. Includes micosoft vs linux, windows vs linux, linux the fact free linux ebooks, free linux ...

2010-09-08T23:58:16Z

admin

» Ruby Regexp Resource

The language Ruby had been conceived on early 2003 by Matz whom thought to make a brand-new language that balanced functional development with imperative development. Matz has stated that he desired a new programming language. ...

2010-09-08T23:57:25Z

admin

» Ruby Regex Tools

The language Ruby is mostly a dynamic, reflective, general purpose object oriented coding language that mixes format influenced by Perl along with Smalltalk-like capabilities. Ruby came from Japan through the mid-1990s and also was ...

2010-09-08T15:52:07Z

Edward.H

Using Clojure Code Within CFML

This past weekend, I attended Amit Rathore's ProClojure boot camp to learn the Clojure programming language. Back in the 80's, I had quite a bit of exposure to Lisp but haven't had cause to use those techniques since. ...

2008-08-09T23:01:03Z

unknown

Best Programming Language to Start With: How to Plan your First ...

Choosing the first programming language to learn is never an easy task, and the most common choices in university courses are not necessarily the best for your needs.

2010-09-08T20:13:46Z

admin

Ruby Regex Tools

The Ruby programming language is known as a dynamic, reflective, everyday object-oriented programming language that fuses style influenced by Perl utilizing the Smalltalk language capabilities. The language Ruby originated from Japan ...

2010-09-08T22:22:26Z

admin

Which Language You Prefer For The Future? - command - Windows Pie

I have some good knowledge about some programming languages(C/C++, php, visual basic, java). But i want to be a master with just one language. Please can anyone suggest which language should i choos...

2010-08-26T13:26:35Z

unknown

C Tutorial–The C Programming Language for Beginners

Programming in C is so simple that even people with no background in programming can start learning how to program immediately.

2010-09-03T02:08:21Z

DG

Webcast: Teaching Programming Language Concepts With F# – Part 1

Teaching programming language concepts with F#, part 1. In this screencast, Peter Sestoft, Professor IT University of Copenhagen, Denmark, introduces the curriculum, lecture plan and lecture notes for the course.

2008-03-07T14:41:11Z

unknown

The Alice Programming Language: An Easy Way to Learn Programming ...

Using animated movies and simple video, Alice is a very high level programming language designed to teach basic programming to even the most novice computer user.

2010-09-08T12:27:04Z

tamdoan135

[FS] Coding in Objective-C 2.0 - Movie Talk and Sharing,Best ...

Objective-C is the programming language for writing native iPhone and Mac applications. It?s also the language that Apple uses to build their own applications and frameworks. So, if you know Objective-C, you have a lot of power at your ...

2010-09-09T02:30:20Z

KaRiMoO

[HF] Expert F# 2.0 - Rapidshare Forums

F# isn t just another functional programming language. It s a general-purpose language ideal for real-world development. F# seamlessly integrates functional, imperative, and object-oriented programming styles so you can flexibly and ...

2010-08-23T02:05:09Z

Jack Trainor

TRAC Interpreter -- Sixties programming language « Python recipes ...

A Python implementation of an interpreter for the TRAC programming language developed by Calvin Mooers in the early 1960s. This implementation reconstructs Mooers' original algorithm in Python and supports only a limited number of TRAC ...

2010-09-01T18:23:38Z

gidireich

learning PHP as a programming language - PHP

Hi all, I'm a C developer, familiar Java, C++, C# . I'm into PHP now. Trying to find a good material, I read several which served PHP in do-this-do-that manner. I'm looking for a good book about PHP as a programming language.

2010-09-09T04:34:12Z

unknown

Visual Basic 2008 Software Rapidshare Free Full Downloads with ...

Beginning VB 2008 has been written to teach you how to use the Visual Basic programming language to solve problems. From the earliest chapters, and from the first introductory concepts, you'll be looking at real-world programming ...

2010-09-04T02:00:48Z

admin

The Ruby Programming Language

The language Ruby helps numerous coding paradigms, including object oriented. What's more, it features a dynamic type technique along with automatic memory space management; it is therefore related in varying aspects to Dylan. ...

2010-09-04T16:22:03Z

Joo Joo Reviewer

What ist your favorite programming language for tablet PCs and why ...

Question by Gerald: What ist your favorite programming language for tablet PCs and why? Tablets like iPad, Archos' Home Tablets, JooJoo, HP Slate, The.

2010-08-25T12:14:15Z

Anay

Just Released: Maya Programming Language | Anay Kamat's Weblog

Around one year ago, I had started experimenting with concepts of creating programming languages. I first started with building few DSLs (Domain Specific Languages) using Ruby and Boo. It was quite interesting to work on development of ...

2010-09-08T22:19:39Z

admin

How hard is the field of Computer Software Engineering? Where ...

There are numerous tutorials on the web that you can download for free along with the programming language. You might want to start with PERL since it won't cost you any money and will run on your PC. It is somewhat a kin to C in its ...

2010-09-08T12:30:00Z

V2

Robotics and Automation: [CALL FOR PARTICIPATION] 1st ...

A domain-specific language (DSL) is a programming language dedicated to a particular problem domain that offers specific notations and abstractions that increase programmer productivity within that domain. ...

2010-09-08T22:02:10Z

stephanie

OpenOffice.org 3.2 – Guide to Programming in OOo Basic [How-to Guide]

“As the name suggests, OpenOffice.org Basic is a programming language from the Basic family. Anyone who has previously worked with other Basic languages — in particular with Visual Basic or Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) from ...

2010-08-31T02:47:44Z

unknown

Python 2.2.1 Programming Language

Python 2.2.1 Programming Language. Why do I need Python 2.2.1.

2010-08-18T11:50:01Z

Rob Diana

Web & Scripting Programming Language Job Trends - August 2010 ...

At the beginning of this month, I compared the job trends for traditional programming languages like C++, Java and others. This post is one of the recurring programming job trends posts, where we look at web and scripting programming ...

2010-09-08T15:58:07Z

admin

i am a professional at C/C++ and what to learn PHP Programming ...

if you are really professional in C and / or C++ Programming languages , php is nothing but a peace of cake to you , because C/C++ Much much harder to learn and much more complicated ,, php is like a very simple version of C, ...

2010-08-24T16:22:38Z

timm

REBOL: Obscure Programming Language of the Month

REBOL (Relative Expression Based Object Language) is a cross-platform data exchange language and dynamic programming language originally designed for network communications and distributed computing. More recently, REBOL has been used ...

2010-08-22T16:49:03Z

Wareprise.com

How to create your own programming language » Software for Enterprise

With so many programming languages to choose from such as C / C++, Python, Java; Google developed Go with an intention for the language to be FAST, about a a few seconds to build a large executable on a single computer! ...

2010-08-13T18:11:56Z

Alex

Who Invented the Pascal Programming Language?

If you answered "Mr. Pascal," you'd be off by about 300 years! The mathematician Blaise Pascal, whose Pascal programming language is named after, died in 1662. The Pascal programming language was invented by Niklaus Wirth, who had this ...

2010-09-08T20:05:00Z

Karl Kapp

Kapp Notes: 11 Free Game Creation Software Programs (At least for ...

Scratch:Scratch is a programming language that makes it easy to create your own interactive stories, animations, games, music, and art -- and share your creations on the web. Scratch is developed by the Lifelong Kindergarten Group at ...

2010-08-31T15:59:28Z

admin

What is the best software programming language equivalent to PHP?

4 Responses to “What is the best software programming language equivalent to PHP?” David D says: August 31, 2010 at 4:43 pm. PHP is an object oriented programming language. While there are others with similar capabilities, ...

2010-09-08T18:33:46Z

admin

Web Site Making: Technology Of Creation A Web Site : Internet ...

For more functional sites there is programming language that calls JavaScipt. It is used only on client side, better to say in the Interne browser of the user. This language for small “plugging” for sites in the form of visual effects ...

2008-01-13T18:12:14Z

Anne Zelenka

Open Thread: What's Your Favorite Programming Language? «

While perhaps only our geekiest readers have a favorite programming language, it's a useful question since so many web workers do know how to code, even if it's just hacking up JavaScript and PHP on a WordPress installation.

2010-09-06T14:04:00Z

unknown

Programming Language used in Cocoa Programming

Objective-C is a simple and elegant extension to C, and mastering it will take about two hours if you already know C and an object-oriented language, such as Java or C++.

2010-09-05T11:31:01Z

admin

bigfaqs.com » What is the most popular, useful and practical ...

4 Responses to “What is the most popular, useful and practical programming language in America?” Joseph says: September 5, 2010 at 11:52 am. Depends on what you want to do. For example, if you want to program in Mac OS X, ...

2010-09-06T21:31:31Z

specialk

Day-to-Day Nonsense » Dynamic Programming Languages are a net ...

Dynamic programming languages allow you to make the Faustian bargain of ease of prototyping at the expense of maintainability. They let you prototype your system quickly without having to think too deeply about the core abstractions. ...

2010-08-09T20:36:00Z

C

R-Chart: GitHub Stats on Programming Languages

R is ranked 25th with 191 repositories or about 0.06% and only 6 projects behind the D programming language. The top 5 are scripting languages, Java ranks 6th and the C family rounds out the top ten. Relatively open languages lead the ...

2010-08-24T02:36:09Z

YourStory Team

PyCon India 2010 : the primary Python Programming language ...

PyCon India 2010 : the primary Python Programming language conference in India - September 25,26.

2010-09-08T19:13:37Z

Jose C Gomez

GOlang System Programming | josecgomez.com

GOlang System Programming. Last year Google introduced Golang (GO) a system programming language. “No major systems language has emerged in over a decade, but over that time the computing landscape has changed tremendously” ...

2010-09-07T07:00:00Z

CyberNeo

Google Showcase HTML 5 | Cyber World

What makes this more special is the logo programming language. Google Logo programming language was built in HTML 5. HTML 5 will become the next generation of HTML programming language. HTML 5 has a system that can run video and ...

2010-09-09T04:38:36Z

unknown

2010 Anesthesia Code Book Rapidshare Free Full Downloads with ...

Writing good code can be a challenge, there are so many options, especially in a language like Visual Basic. If you want to really get the best from a programming language you need to know which features work best in which situations ...

2010-09-09T03:35:54Z

admin

English language teaching: methods, tools techniques | free ...

Moyhajibhai Faljibhai Patel, Praveen M. Jain, English language teaching: methods, tools techniques Sunrise Publishers Distributors | 2008 | ISBN:

2010-08-17T21:35:00Z

C

Programming Language Popularity: StackOverflow and Ohloh ...

An article about R: In the following example, programming language popularity is measured based upon two data sets. The first is the number of contributors associated with a language on ohloh.net. The second is tag usage at ...

2010-09-06T23:24:09Z

admin

Python 3.2 Alpha 2: Remarkably powerful dynamic programming ...

Python 3.2 Alpha 2: Remarkably powerful dynamic programming language that is used in a wide variety of application domains – Free Software Download and Review @Esoft.Web.id, the most comprehensive source for free downloads recommended … ...

2010-07-12T19:10:00Z

Chris Cameron

Picking the Right Programming Language for Your Startup

In the game of baseball, pitchers and batters are continually making adjustments to improve their chances against each other. If a batter stikes out, he can learn from ...

2007-10-10T08:00:00Z

unknown

Windows Command Line Programming: Getting Started with the Windows ...

First look at Windows Command Line Programming using the Batch Language supplied with Windows, Win32, XP, and Vista, and how to create batch file programs.

2010-08-04T23:09:00Z

Andrew Gerrand

The Go Programming Language Blog: Defer, Panic, and Recover

... defer statement (with or without panic and recover) provides an unusual and powerful mechanism for control flow. It can be used to model a number of features implemented by special-purpose structures in other programming languages. ...

2010-09-08T20:11:40Z

admin

XGS PIC 16-Bit Product Presentation | First Contact Radio Blog

do you know where i can get c programming language is it free ive looked on the internet about it but cant find anythng about where to get it : ). XGSDEV says: September 9, 2010 at 4:23 am. Well, there are two completely different ...

2010-08-25T12:33:06Z

Goto, N., Prins, P., Nakao, M., Bonnal, R., Aerts, J., Katayama, T.

BioRuby: Bioinformatics software for the Ruby programming language ...

Summary: The BioRuby software toolkit contains a comprehensive set of free development tools and libraries for bioinformatics and molecular biology, written in the Ruby programming language. BioRuby has components for sequence analysis, ...

2010-08-10T18:14:26Z

dons00

Grammatical Framework, a programming language for multilingual ...

a special-purpose language for grammars, like YACC, Bison, Happy, BNFC, but not restricted to programming languages; a functional language, like Haskell, Lisp, OCaml, Scheme, SML, but specialized to grammar writing; a natural language ...

2010-09-08T21:28:57Z

admin

Essay Tips » Blog Archive » Think of the Impossible with Web ...

The use of flash is not only limited to animation or designing, but flash developers in India are capable of exploiting the Action Scripting, the specific programming language of flash, to develop completely database backed web ...

2010-09-07T18:13:41Z

unknown

Is Transactional Programming Actually Easier? | Lambda the Ultimate

Everyone always likes to talk about usability in programming languages without trying to do it. Some claim it can't even be done, despite the fact Horning and Gannon did work on the subject 3+ decades ago, assessing how one can Language ...

2010-09-08T11:03:41Z

chipve

Head First Java, 2nd Edition » SCRiPTMAFiA.ORG | Full Nulled Scripts

Product Description Learning a complex new language is no easy task especially when it s an object-oriented computer programming language like Java. You might think the problem is your brain.

2010-08-11T14:05:00Z

The H

Scala programming language roadmap - The H Open Source: News and ...

Martin Odersky has presented a roadmap of plans for the next versions of the Scala language with an emphasis on parallel computing.

2010-08-05T04:42:04Z

robdiana

Traditional Programming Language Job Trends - August 2010 | Javalobby

About 6 months ago, I looked at the job trends for traditional programming languages again. Given the popularity of these posts, I have decided to make...

2010-07-14T14:57:52Z

admin

Scala 2.8.0 final | The Scala Programming Language

From all the languages I've learnt so far, its my definitive favorite and the best guidance into "good" programming I ever had. I have even started to build my own tuples, options and single-linked-lists to use them in "pure" java as ...

2010-08-26T05:55:00Z

noreply@blogger.com (Mark Proctor)

Drools - Business Logic integration Platform: Gremlin: A Graph ...

"Gremlin is a Turing-complete, graph-based programming language developed for key/value-pair multi-relational graphs called property graphs. Gremlin makes extensive use of XPath 1.0 to support complex graph traversals. ...

2010-09-08T11:50:05Z

unknown

Portable Compiler Rapidshare Free Full Downloads with Hotfile and ...

... (like Intellisense), project conversion, and batch building features, as well as many other advanced features. Download your copy today to begin writing, debugging, and building applications in your favorite programming language. ...

2010-08-15T17:22:57Z

Davy Brion

Highly Recommended Book: The Ruby Programming Language | The ...

Books about programming languages are generally pretty boring. It's not the fault of the writers, or the language, it's just because so many boring details need to be covered when learning a new language. I was very happy to see that ...

2009-08-06T12:31:25Z

unknown

An Introduction to Programming with Haskell: Getting Started with ...

Most programming languages concentrate on how something is to be calculated, not what is to be calculated. The Haskell programming language is not like that, and that's because it's a functional programming language. ...

2010-09-06T16:33:52Z

admin

Game Programming Gems Rapidshare Free Full Downloads with Hotfile ...

Learn Programming Language, List of Programming Languages … about 11 hours ago - No comments. Learn Programming Language, List of Programming Languages, Programming Languages Basic. ...

2010-08-26T10:28:04Z

odersky

Simple or Complicated? | The Scala Programming Language

I know of no other language that has so successfully merged the functional and object-oriented programming styles. I also know of no other language that managed to implement delimited continuations on a hostile VM with a compiler plugin ...

2010-09-08T21:18:03Z

Amitech Solutions

Amitech Solutions

Although a very powerful programming language, it simplifies the approach. In order to take advantage of the advancements in C#, a developer needs understand not only the functions but how to create streamlined, manageable and effective ...

2010-08-26T21:33:48Z

iNi

Ohcount Developers: Programming Language - Ohloh

Programming Language. Forums; »; Ohcount Developers · Avatar · iNi. 13 days ago. Hello! I programm in PureBasic,but I can't find it in Your Languages List!Can You add it? Thanks! ...

2010-09-08T20:45:33Z

Boyce

Draw shapes on computer | orgstate

Logo (programming language) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia LOGO is a computer programming language used for functional programming. .... Animations require both the ability to draw shapes and to erase shapes. Custom OO Shapes Do you ...

2010-06-22T13:00:00Z

James Turner

Does the world need another programming language? - O'Reilly Radar

In this Q&A, Google principal engineer Rob Pike discusses development of Go, a new programming language. He also looks at the current state of programming languages and explains why we're in the midst of a language.

2009-01-07T20:57:43Z

unknown

The Top 20 Most Popular Programming Languages: The TIOBE ...

The TIOBE Programming Community Index for January 2008 lists the most popular programming languages and can be very useful when it comes to deciding which to learn next.

2010-07-16T14:11:00Z

Richard Bejtlich

TaoSecurity: Human Language as the New Programming Language

Clearly knowledge of programming languages is helpful for vulnerability-centric security. Those who can program in the right languages can help identify vulnerabilities, develop exploits, and do other code-centric work. ...

2010-08-23T15:00:58Z

tiffany

Why ActionScript 3.0 should be your first programming language ...

My point with this post isn't to start a language holy war. I'm not even sure I like ActionScript, plus my first programming language was actually PHP. Still I recognize that the way ActionScript works and as importantly, how it's used ...

2010-09-09T02:40:01Z

Leta

MathWorks MATLAB R3010B - KL » List Downloads Software, Movies ...

MATLAB - a high-level technical computing language, interactive environment for algorithm design and modern tools of data analysis. MATLAB compared to traditional programming languages (C / C, Java, Pascal, FORTRAN) allows an order to ...

2008-03-18T16:00:00Z

Douglas Crockford

The World's Most Popular Programming Language Has Fashion and Luck ...

Jean Sammet wrote Computer Languages: History and Fundamentals in 1969. It was a survey of 120 programming languages, some examined in considerable detail. Sammet's book chronicled languages that were designed before the Structured ...

2010-09-06T21:06:00Z

Bruce Kyle

MS Research Releases Kodu Language and Grammar Specification - US ...

Kodu is a new visual programming language made specifically for creating games. It is designed to be accessible for children and enjoyable for anyone. The programming environment runs on the Xbox, allowing rapid design iteration using ...

2010-08-19T20:52:19Z

DG

get Going! With Go Programming Language – OSCON Keynote Video

Rob Pike, Google Distinguished Engineer and co-creator of the Go programming language, presented an OSCON keynote about his motivations for creating Go. For those of you who weren't able to catch in person, you can now watch the video ...

2010-09-08T22:03:32Z

unknown

Quantitative Equity Rapidshare Downloads

This book presents the "great ideas" of computer science, condensing a large amount of complex material into a manageable, accessible form; it does so using the Java programming language. The book is based on the problem-oriented ...

2010-09-08T21:22:20Z

Amitech Solutions

Amitech Solutions

ASP.net is a proprietary programming language used for developing websites. ASP.net developers are expected to be capable of building standard web applications by making use of Visual Basic Script and C#. ASP.net developers would be ...

2010-06-03T02:27:01Z

Rachel Hawley (DevExpress)

Delphi – The Programming Language of Education - Rachel Hawley's ...

Does this mean that Delphi is no longer a sought after programming language for UK developers? Perhaps. Does it mean that the job market in the UK is satisfied in terms of its roles for Delphi developers? Maybe. Does it mean that Delphi ...

2010-09-09T05:46:06Z

unknown

Codi Milo Rapidshare Free Full Downloads with Hotfile and ...

Objective-C is the programming language for writing native iPhone and Mac applications. It's also the language that Apple uses to build their own applications and frameworks. So, if you know Objective-C, you have a lot of power at your ...

2002-11-12T08:00:00Z

unknown

AMPL: A Modeling Language for Mathematical Programming 2nd edition ...

AMPL is a language for large-scale optimization and mathematical programming problems in production, distribution, blending, scheduling, and many other applications. Combining familiar algebraic notation and a powerful interactive ...

2007-07-14T08:00:00Z

unknown

Introduction To GNU C++: The no cost alternative to the BIG GUYS

The nicest aspect of the GNU project is that it makes a very powerful programming language available to everyone at no cost to the user (the GNU Foundation does ask for donations to further the project goals). ...

2010-09-09T02:31:04Z

admin

Google Instant Dictionary – Google I/O 2008 – Painless Python Part ...

Painless Python for Proficient Programmers Part II Alex Martelli (Google) Python is a popular very-high-level programming language, with a clean and spare syntax, simple and regular semantics, a large standard library and a wealth of ...